Taking Better Care of Monkeys and Apes Refinement of Housing and Handling Practices for Caged Nonhuman Primates     Viktor Reinhardt Animal Welfare Institute

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DEFINITIONS
2.1. Refinement
2.2. Distress
2.3 Well-Being

3. SIGNS OF REFINEMENT

4. DISTRESSING CONDITIONS

4.1. Barren Cage
4.1.1. Signs of Distress and Impaired Well-Being
4.1.2. Refinement

41.2.1. Companionship

4.1.2.1.1. Previously Single-Housed Animals Can be Transferred to Social-Housing Arrangements Without Undue Risks
4.1.2.1.2. Compatible Companionship Enhances Well-Being by Addressing the Need for Social Contact and Social Interaction
4.1.2.1.3. Companionship Buffers Fear and Anxiety
4.1.2.1.4. Companionship Buffers Physiological Distress
4.1.2.1.5. Companionship Promotes Health
4.1.2.1.6. Companionship Alleviates or Eliminates Behavioral Pathologies

4.1.2.2. Grooming Opportunities
4.1.2.3. Foraging Opportunities

4.1.2.3.1. Food Puzzles
4.1.2.3.2. Food Dispensers
4.1.2.3.3. Food with or on Substrate

4.1.2.4. Access to the Vertical Dimension
4.1.2.5. Environmental Enrichment

 

4.2. Separation from the Companion
4.2.1. Signs of Distress and Impaired Well-Being
4.2.2. Alternatives to Partner Separation
4.2.2.1. Post Operative Recovery
4.2.2.2. Food-Intake and Metabolic Studies
4.2.2.3. Neurophysiological Studies

 

4.3. Social Conflicts
4.3.1. Signs of Distress
4.3.2. Refinement

4.3.2.1. Breaking Visual Contact
4.3.2.2. Access to the Vertical Dimension of the Enclosure
4.3.2.3. Careful Re-Introduction after Separation

 

4.4. Enforced Restraint
4.4.1. Signs of Distress
4.4.2. Refinement

4.4.2.1. Training to Cooperate during Injection and Venipuncture
4.4.2.2. Training to Cooperate during Sample Collection from Vascular Access Ports
4.4.2.3. Training to Cooperate during Saliva Collection
4.4.2.4. Training to Cooperate during Semen Collection
4.4.2.5. Training to Cooperate during Blood Pressure Measurement
4.4.2.6. Training to Cooperate during Oral Drug Administration
4.4.2.7. Training to Cooperate during Topical Drug Application
4.4.2.8. Pole-and-Collar-and-Chair Training
4.4.2.9. Training to Cooperate for Weighing
4.4.2.10. Training to Cooperate for Capture

5. DISCUSSION
5.1. Compatible Companionship
5.2. Foraging Opportunities
5.3. Access to the Vertical Dimension
5.4. Positive Reinforcement Training

6. CONCLUSIONS

7. REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION

Russell and Burch (1992) introduced the concept of the 3 Rs - Replacement, Reduction and Refinement - in their 1959-book, Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. The concept was endorsed by the biomedical research community in the 1980s, but only two of the 3 Rs - Replacement and Reduction - have received serious attention. The practical relevance of the third - Refinement - has largely been overlooked (Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, 2002). A search of the literature shows that articles dealing with Replacement and Reduction by far outnumber those dealing with Refinement .

Figure 1 Results of a Scirus database search for the keyword string Animal Testing Alternatives & Use of Laboratory Animals & Refinement/Replacement/Reduction on June 30, 2007.

This book reviews the literature on the Refinement of traditional housing and handling practices for nonhuman primates who live in cages alone, in pairs or trios; articles dealing with group-housed animals (four or more animals) are not included. Published material has been reviewed if detailed data and sufficient information are provided that would allow the replication of the study in a different facility. Purely descriptive or theoretical material has not been included.
I am very grateful to my wife Annie Reinhardt, my daughter Catherine Reinhardt-Zacaïr, and the Animal Welfare Institute's Catherine Carroll and Cathy Liss for carefully checking the text and correcting grammatical errors and stylistic flaws.
It is my wish that the information compiled in this booklet will inspire animal caregivers, animal technicians, clinical veterinarians and researchers who are responsible for the welfare of caged primates to alleviate the animals' avoidable burden of distress.

Mt. Shasta, California January 2008

Viktor Reinhardt

2. DEFINITIONS