Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Murchison, M. A. 1991. PVC-pipe food puzzle for singly caged primates. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 30(3), 12-14.

Perforated PVC pipes were placed parallel one on top of the other and loaded with peanuts. It appears that [single-housed] males were slower to learn how to retrieve peanuts but could become as proficient as...

Metz, B., Weld, K., Erwin, J. 1991. A system for documentation and assessment of behavioral responses of chimpanzees to environmental enrichment. American Journal of Primatology 24, 123 (Abstract).

A monitoring system for evaluation of environmental enrichment options is outlined.

Menzel, E. W. 1991. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Problem seeking versus the bird-in-hand, least-effort strategy. Primates 32, 497-508.

Chimpanzees will sometimes attempt to solve a discrimination problem for food rather than simply taking freely accessible food.

Mendoza, S. P. 1991. Sociophysiology of well-being in nonhuman primates. Laboratory Animal Science 41, 344-349.

We have found, for example, that formation of same-sex groups of squirrel monkeys is rarely accompanied by injurious aggression. Once unisexual groups have stabilized, formation of larger heterosexual groups generally proceeds smoothly (p. 347). [Group...

Mellen, J. D. 1991. Learning principles as they apply to animal husbandry. American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) Annual Conference Proceedings, 548-552.

A general discussion of training techniques. An initial investment in training time may well 'pay for itself' when that training allows for a quick and safe execution of a husbandry or medical routine. No data...

McMillan, G. C. 1991. The effect of environmental manipulation on drill baboon social behavior. American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) Annual Conference Proceedings, 638 (Abstract).

The provision of visual barriers resulted in a reduction of social behavior in one of two study groups.

Matevia, M., Fritz, J., Nankivell, B. 1991. Effect of increased space on behaviors of captive chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology 24, 120-121 (Abstract).

The results suggest that increased space may reduce some social interactions. It is not clear if levels of social activity [in general] in smaller spaces are 'abnormally' high, and are reduced to more 'normal' levels...

Mason, G. J. 1991. Stereotypies: a critical review. Animal Behaviour 41, 1015-1037.

Stereotypies are physically or temporally associated with lack of stimulation, or events such as acute stressors or the expected arrival of food. All these environments may involve chronic conflict and frustration and hence stress. Other...

Mason, W. A. 1991. Effects of social interaction on well-being: Development aspects. Laboratory Animal Science 41, 323-328 .

Captive animals will be served best if developing individuals are raised at least through weaning by their biological mothers and have the experience of living in a social group that approximates the size and age-sex...

Line, S. W., Morgan, K. N., Markowitz, H. 1991. Simple toys do not alter the behavior of aged rhesus monkeys. Zoo Biology 10, 473-484.

By the fourth week of exposure only 36% of the [single-caged] monkeys were seen using them [rubber toys, nylon ball, gnawing stick] even once, and only 17% did so during more than one of three...

Line, S. W., Morgan, K. N., Markowitz H. 1991. Pair formation among adult female long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology 24, 115-116 (Abstract).

Most social units were formed by choosing partners at random and removing a partition between adjacent cages. Thirteen of 15 pairs, and [only] 1 of 4 trios, remained compatible for 4 months or longer following...

Line, S. W., Morgan, K. N. 1991. The effects of two novel objects on the behaviour of singly caged adult rhesus macaques. Laboratory Animal Science 41, 365-369.

Single-housed subjects engaged in almond stick use 5.8% of 15 minute-observation sessions. The corresponding figure for nylon ball use was 2%. No adverse health effects of stick ingestion were noted among the subjects.

Line, S. W., Morgan, K. N., Markowitz, H. 1991. Changes in behavior and heart rate associated with pair formation in adult female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Bulletin 30(4), 17 (Abstract).

Mean heart rate increased significantly during pair housing. Bizarre postures decreased, while other abnormal behaviors including pacing, stereotypic actions, and self-injury did not change significantly. [Pair formation technique is not described.]

Line, S. W., Markowitz, H., Morgan, K. N. et al. 1991. Effect of cage size and environmental enrichment on behavioral and physiological responses of rhesus macaques to the stress of daily events. In: Through the Looking Glass. Issues of Psychological Well-Being in Captive Nonhuman Primates. Novak, M. A. , Petto, A. J. (eds), 160-179. American Psychological Association, Washington DC.

Neither heart rate nor activity varied significantly between the two cage sizes [of barren cages]. Adult, single-housed female rhesus macaques responded with a significant rise in heart rate to being removed from their home cage...

Lindburg, D. G. 1991. Ecological requirements of macaques. Laboratory Animal Science 41(4), 315-322.

In captive colonies, social and rearing environments and modes of provisioning often depart significantly from those that occur in nature. Within limits, naturalistic patterns can serve as useful models for improving the quality of life...

Lambeth, S. P., Bloomsmith, M. A. 1991. Mirrors as enrichment for captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). American Journal of Primatology 24, 114 (Abstract).

When the mirror gave subjects visual access to neighboring animals, sexual and agonistic behaviors increased, whereas play behavior decreased compared with when no mirror was present.

Lam, K., Rupniak, N. M. J., Iversen, S. D. 1991. Use of a grooming and foraging substrate to reduce cage stereotypies in macaques. Journal of Medical Primatology 20(3), 104-109.

We examined the effects of a synthetic fleece pad on cage stereotypies in individually housed cynomolgus monkeys. Animals exhibited idiosyncratic repertoires of stereotyped behaviour, including repetitive pacing, swaying circling, bouncing, cage charging, and rocking that...

Kopecky, J., Reinhardt, V. 1991. Comparing the effectiveness of PVC swings versus PVC perches as environmental enrichment objects for caged female rhesus macaques. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 30(2), 5-6.

Single-housed subjects' preference for perches was probably related to the fact that perches, unlike swings, are fixed structures permitting continuous relaxed postures rather than short-term balancing. Moreover, perches, unlike swings, permit the animals to sit...

Kennedy, K. 1991. Chimpanzee invent enrichment devices: A brief anecdotal report. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 30(3), 15.

Two young, single-housed chimpanzees created their own swings - one a spinning swing, the other a conventional swing - with strips of their blankets.

Kaplan, M. L., Jobao, B. J. 1991. A unique housing system for rhesus macaques. Lab Animal 20(6), 48-50.

From each bank of four dog cages, we removed the ceilings of the lower two cages, making a single housing unit for macaques. To each cage we added three resting perches, a climbing ladder, windows...

Keeling, M. E., Alford, P. L., Bloomsmith, M. A. 1991. Decision analysis for developing programs of psychological well-being. In: Through the Looking Glass. Issues of Psychological Well-Being in Captive Nonhuman Primates. Novak, M. A. , Petto, A. J. (eds), 57-65. American Psychological Association, Washington DC.

Because overintellectualizing a problem can lead to paralysis, we must be predisposed to taking action, even though that action may be based on less information than we would like. A conceptual framework for such action...

Kalfon, E. 1991. Pets make a difference in long-term care. Perspectives 15(4), 3-6.
Izard, M. K. 1991. Efforts to promote psychological well-being in prosimian primates at the Duke University Primate Research Center. In: Through the Looking Glass. Issues of Psychological Well-Being in Captive Nonhuman Primates. Novak, M. A. , Petto, A. J. (eds), 180-188. American Psychological Association, Washington DC.

Species-adequate housing arrangement for prosimians are described.

Hunt, R. D. 1991. The necessity for interpreting of standards designed to promote the psychological well-being of nonhuman primates. In: Through the Looking Glass. Issues of Psychological Well-Being in Captive Nonhuman Primates. Novak, M. A. , Petto, A. J. (eds), 20-25. American Psychological Association, Washington DC.

The provision of what is ultimately determined to be an appropriate environment to promote the psychological well-being of nonhuman primates will obviously not ensure the well-being of each species of nonhuman primate or of each...

Hogan, M. 1991. Training for behavioral enrichment and species propagation. American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) Annual Conference Proceedings, 629 (Abstract).

The purpose of this project is to demonstrate that operant conditioning and positive reinforcement training techniques can be utilized in a zoo setting to provide environmental enrichment.