Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Reinhardt, V. 1993. Enticing nonhuman primates to forage for their standard biscuit ration. Zoo Biology 12(3), 307-312.

Ordinary feeder-boxes were converted into food puzzles by remounting them onto the mesh of the front of the cages, away from original access holes. The total amount of time [pair-housed] adult male rhesus macaques engaged...

Marriott, B. M., Marriott, R. W., Norris, J. et al. 1993. A semi-natural habitat for housing small, nonhuman primates. Journal of Medical Primatology 22, 348-354.

A semi-natural habitat that was designed to house a group of squirrel monkeys is described. Animals maintained in this environment were healthy, and none of the animals exhibited locomotor stereotypies. This facility was easier and...

Fritz, J., Howell, S. M. 1993. Psychological wellness for captive chimpanzees: An evaluative program. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 426-434.

Authors describe the "Wellness Program" of the Primate Foundation of Arizona (PFA) devoted to producing physically and behaviorally normal chimpanzees. Psychological well-being is a major focus. In this paper, the authors present protocols specific to...

Bercovitch, F., Kessler, M. J. 1993. Primate facilities and environmental enrichment: An ecological and evolutionary perspective. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 435-439.

The environmental enrichment program of the Caribbean Primate Research Center is guided by an evolutionary and ecological perspective. The evolutionary perspective suggests that primates should be housed in enclosures that provide a social and physical...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 1992. Quantitatively tested environmental enrichment options for singly-caged nonhuman primates: A review. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 6, 374-384.

Compatible companionship has a therapeutic effect on behavioral disorders, providing long- term stimulation of a great variety of species-typical social behavior patterns. Inanimate objects have little impact on behavioral disorders, but some of them provide...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Space utilization by captive rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 43, 11-17.

The area covered by the floor was 3 times larger than that covered by elevated structures; nonetheless the animals were located significantly more often (89.8% of 108 scan samples) on elevated structures than on the...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Environmental enhancement plan for previously single-caged adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Animal Technology 43, 115-119.

To promote the well-being of previously single-caged adult (older than 5 years) rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and the quality of research done with them, the following environmental enhancement plan has been developed and implemented at...

Pruetz, J. D., Bloomsmith, M. A. 1992. Comparing two manipulable objects as enrichment for captive chimpanzees. Animal Welfare 1(2), 127-137.

This study compared the effectiveness of kraft wrapping paper and rubber to as enrichment for 22 chimpanzees group-housed in conventional indoor/outdoor runs. Objects were tested separately during 67 hours of data collection using a group...

Poenisch, T. 1992. Bedding for enrichment. The Newsletter 4(1), 1.

When forage materials [chicken scratch] are provided, bedding materials, such as straw or shredded newspaper, along with woodchips increase the amount of time the captive chimpanzee spends in search of forage materials. ... Whether this...

Lambeth, S. P., Bloomsmith, M. A. 1992. Mirrors as enrichment for the captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). The Newsletter 3(3), 1.

No quantitative studies have focused on the properties of a mirror and its use as a social enrichment tool. We did an observation study, which included 239 12-minute sessions over a four month period to...

Gilloux, I., Gurnell, J., Shepherdson, D. 1992. An enrichment device for great apes. Animal Welfare 1(4), 279-289.

The influence of an environmental enrichment feeding device (puzzle feeder), on activity and behaviour patterns of captive orang-utans, gorillas and chimpanzees was studied at London Zoo. General activity levels and behaviours directed towards the feeder...

Brent, L. 1992. Enriching the lives of captive primates. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 6, 371-373.

The author reviews improvements in the behavioral management of a colony of captive chimpanzees at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research. Environmental enrichment techniques, such as providing increased opportunities for physical, sensory, and feeding stimulation...

Bayne, K., Dexter, S. L., Mainzer H et al. 1992. The use of artificial turf as a foraging substrate for individually housed rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Animal Welfare 1, 39-53.

In this study artificial turf was used as the substrate for a particulate food given to the subjects as an environmental enrichment technique. When their cages were not enriched, eight single-caged subjects exhibited abnormal behaviors...

Salzen, E. A., Marriott, B. M. 1991. Technical note: A primatrail or an inexpensive cage expansion for group housing small primates. Journal of Medical Primatology 20(2), 94-96.

An inexpensive method for converting standard laboratory cages into colony units for housing small primate species is described. In addition to increasing the volume of space available to the animals, this system also provides a...

Reinhardt, V., Pape, R. 1991. An alternative method for primate perch installation. Lab Animal 20(8), 47-48.

Modification of squeeze cages is described allowing the installation of a perch that does not interfere with the normal operation of the cage.

Lam, K., Rupniak, N. M. J., Iversen, S. D. 1991. Use of a grooming and foraging substrate to reduce cage stereotypies in macaques. Journal of Medical Primatology 20(3), 104-109.

We examined the effects of a synthetic fleece pad on cage stereotypies in individually housed cynomolgus monkeys. Animals exhibited idiosyncratic repertoires of stereotyped behaviour, including repetitive pacing, swaying circling, bouncing, cage charging, and rocking that...

Brent, L., Lee, D. R., Eichberg, J. W. 1991. Evaluation of a chimpanzee enrichment enclosure . Journal of Medical Primatology 20(1), 29-34.

A large, three-part playground for captive chimpanzees was constructed and evaluated in terms of area use and behavior changes. Comparative behavioral samples were obtained on 38 subjects in the existing indoor-outdoor run and in the...

Reinhardt, V. 1990. A perch for caged macaques. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 4, 134-135.

Wooden and plastic perches have been tested successfully by several hundred rhesus monkeys and 40 stump-tailed monkeys of both sexes and various ages over the last 3 years. Perches have proven an inexpensive, simple, yet...

Poole, T. B. 1990. Environmental enrichment for marmosets. Animal Technology 41(2), 81-86.

Marmosets are among the easiest of primates to provide with environmental enrichment. Like other higher primates, they need companionship, adequate space with incorporated complexity, some unpredictability in the environment, ways in which they can manipulate...

Burt, D. A., Plant, M. 1990. Observations on a caging system for housing stump-tailed macaques. Animal Technology 41, 175-179.

This paper describes the introduction of a modified caging system and the benefits to both the animals and staff. The removal of metal grids at the bottom of the cage, and the introduction of direct...

Reinhardt, V. 1989. Evaluation of the long-term effectiveness of two environmental enrichment objects for singly caged rhesus macaques. Lab Animal 18(6), 31-33.

Subjects were exposed to a PVC pipe and to a gnawing stick uninterruptedly for one year. The singly caged monkeys spent on average 28% of the total observation time [120 min] with the PVC pipes...

Fajzi, K., Reinhardt, V., Smith, M. D. 1989. A review of environmental enrichment strategies for singly-caged nonhuman primates. Lab Animal 18(2), 23-35.

Comprehensive literature review dealing with the following topics: a) Group housing versus single housing; b) Enrichment strategies using inanimate objects; c) Socialization with conspecifics; d) Role of animal care staff.

Bryant, C. E., Rupniak, N. M. J., Iversen, S. D. 1988. Effects of different environmental enrichment devices on cage stereotypies and autoaggression in captive cynomolgus monkeys. Journal of Medical Primatology 17(5), 257-269.

Autoaggression and stereotypies in individually housed cynomolgus monkeys were compared in a standard primate cage and an enriched playpen environment. Stereotypy and autoaggression were markedly reduced in the playpen, but reappeared on return to the...

Segal, E. F. 1987. Caging of laboratory monkeys: Alternative to isolation housing in small cages. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 1, 6.

A case study of one pair of rhesus macaques.

O'Neill, P. L. 1987. Enriching the lives of primates in captivity. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 1, 1-5.

A summary of basic environmental enrichement for group-housed rhesus macaques. The essence of the social primate is lost under the stresses of the nonsocial condition.