Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Coleman, K., Robertson, N. D. 2018. Training non-lactating rhesus macaques to act as foster mothers. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 34-35 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #94).

There can be psychological and physiological consequences resulting from nursery rearing rhesus macaques. To reduce the need for nursery rearing, orphaned infants are often placed with lactating foster mothers. Unfortunately, a supply of these lactating...

Crast, J., Seelig, D., Meeker, T. L. et al. 2018. Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) groups with more non-natal adult males per adult female have lower rates of aggression-induced trauma and greater reproductive success. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 45 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #140).

Limiting contact aggression and social stress is a principal animal welfare challenge in managing large groups of captive nonhuman primates. This challenge is especially pronounced in rhesus monkeys (macaca mulatta), a species characterized by a...

Heagerty, A. L., Coleman, K. 2018. Amount and reciprocity of affiliative behaviors can predict pairing success in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 47 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #148).

Socialization is one of the most important forms of enrichment for rhesus macaques. However, pair introductions can result in aggression and injury if partners are incompatible, even days after the initial introduction. Identifying predictors of...

Hanniba, D., Beisner, B., Nathman, A. et al. 2018. Removals based on low within-matriline relatedness can reduce severe aggression in captive rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 48 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #151).

Previous observational research of captive rhesus macaques suggests that higher coefficients of relatedness within matrilines are associated with lower rates of severe within‐matriline aggression and more cohesive grooming communities. We tested whether experimental removals targeted...

Balasubramaniam, K. N., Beisner, B. A., Vandeleest, J. J. et al. 2018. Social buffering and contact transmission: Network connections have beneficial and detrimental effects on Shigella infection risk among captive rhesus macaques. American Journal of Primatology 80(S1), 51-52 (40th Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists Scientific Program, Abstract #162).

Group living in primates may impact the risk of pathogen acquisition in two ways. First, social connectedness makes individuals more susceptible to pathogens via contact‐mediated transmission. Yet in strongly bonded societies, having close connections and...

Rox, A., de Vries, H., Louwerse, A. L. et al. 2018. Female social behaviour during three male introductions in captive groups of rhesus macaques. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 207, 89-97.

Introductions of new males into captive primate groups are often necessary to prevent inbreeding, but also bear high social risks. To minimize these risks, it is crucial to understand the social behaviour accompanying male introductions...

McCowan, B., Beisner, B., Hannibal, D. 2018. Social management of laboratory rhesus macaques housed in large groups using a network approach: A review. Behavioural Processes 156, 77-82.

Biomedical facilities across the nation and worldwide aim to develop cost-effective methods for the reproductive management of macaque breeding groups, typically by housing macaques in large, multi-male multi-female social groups that provide monkey subjects for...

Martin, A. L., Franklin, A. N., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2018. Systematic assessment of food item preference and reinforcer effectiveness: Enhancements in training laboratory-housed rhesus macaques. Behavioural Processes 157, 445-452.

The use of systematic preference assessments can enhance positive reinforcement training with captive animals. We found that the multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) technique identified food preferences in laboratory housed rhesus macaques, with raisins and...

Ekanayake-Alper,D. K., Wilson, S. R., Scholz, J. A. 2018. Retrospective review of surgical outcomes and pair-housing success in vasectomized rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Comparative Medicine 68(2), 168–176.

Providing social housing for adult male macaques can be challenging. One successful strategy for long-term social housing of adult male macaques is to pair them with adult females; however, unwanted breeding must be prevented by...

Gray, H., Pearce, B., Thiele, A. 2017. The use of preferred social stimuli as rewards for rhesus macaques in behavioural neuroscience. PLOS ONE 12(5), e0178048.

Macaques are often motivated to perform in neuroscientific experiments by implementing fluid restriction protocols. Daily access to water is controlled and the monkeys are rewarded with droplets of fluid for performing correct trials in the...

Bardi, M., Prugh, A. M., Eubanks, B. T. et al. 2017. Physiologic correlates of interactions between adult male and immature long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). JAALAS 56(6), 718-728.

Interactions between adult males and immature members of the same species are rare in most mammals; in contrast, an estimated 40% of primate species are characterized by an involvement of males in the social life...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2017. Two methods of social separation for paired adolescent male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). JAALAS 56(6), 729-734.

Literature-based recommendations regarding how to separate pairs of laboratory-housed NHP when required for research, veterinary, or management needs are unavailable. This study assessed 2 separation techniques—rapid and stepwise—to determine whether a period of limited social...

Theil, J. H., Beisner, B. A., Hill, A. E. et al. 2017. Effects of human management events on conspecific aggression in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). JAALAS 56(2), 122-130.

Conspecific aggression in outdoor-housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) at primate research facilities is a leading source of trauma and can potentially influence animal wellbeing and research quality. Although aggression between macaques is a normal part...

Pomerantz, O., Baker, K. C. 2017. Higher levels of submissive behaviors at the onset of the pairing process of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are associated with lower risk of wounding following introduction. American Journal of Primatology 79(8), e22671.

Social housing of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) is considered to be the cornerstone of behavioral management programs in biomedical facilities. However, it also involves the risk of socially inflicted trauma. The ability to avoid such...

Truelove, M. A., Martin, A. L., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2017. Pair housing of macaques: A review of partner selection, introduction techniques, monitoring for compatibility, and methods for long-term maintenance of pairs. American Journal of Primatology 79(1), e22485.

Pair housing of macaques has become a widely implemented compromise between meeting the social needs of the monkeys and allowing for their use in biomedical research. While beneficial to the animals, pair housing can provide...

Hannibal, D. L., Bliss-Moreau, E., Vandeleest, J. et al. 2017. Laboratory rhesus macaque social housing and social changes: Implications for research. American Journal of Primatology 79(1), e22528.

Macaque species, specifically rhesus (Macaca mulatta), are the most common nonhuman primates (NHPs) used in biomedical research due to their suitability as a model of high priority diseases (e.g., HIV, obesity, cognitive aging), cost effective...

Capitanio, J. P., Blozis, S. A., Snarr, J. et al. 2017. Do “birds of a feather flock together” or do “opposites attract”? Behavioral responses and temperament predict success in pairings of rhesus monkeys in a laboratory setting. American Journal of Primatology 79(1), e22464.

The growing recognition that social needs of primates in captivity must be addressed can present challenges to staff at primate facilities charged with implementing pair‐housing solutions for animals. Unfortunately, there are few published papers that...

Worlein, J. M.,Kroeker, R., Lee, G. H. et al. 2017. Socialization in pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina). American Journal of Primatology 79(1), e22556.

In response to new emphasis by regulatory agencies regarding socialization, behavioral management programs are allocating greater resources to maximize socialization opportunities for laboratory primates. Information regarding predictors of compatibility and risk of injury for all...

Silva de Souza Matos, L., Palme, R., Silva Vasconcellos, A. 2017. Behavioural and hormonal effects of member replacement in captive groups of blue-fronted amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva). Behavioural Processes 138, 160-169.

Social species in captivity may face allostatic overload due to artificial grouping and other social constraints. In rescue centres, groups of psittacines are constantly mixed due to the arrival and/or release of individuals; this procedure...

Kemp, C., Thatcher, H., Farningham, D. et al. 2017. A protocol for training group-housed rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to cooperate with husbandry and research procedures using positive reinforcement. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 197, 90-100.

There has been increased recognition of the 3Rs in laboratory animal management over the last decade, including improvements in animal handling and housing. For example, positive reinforcement is now more widely used to encourage primates...

Williams, I., Hoppitt, W., Grant, R. 2017. The effect of auditory enrichment, rearing method and social environment on the behavior of zoo-housed psittacines (Aves: Psittaciformes); implications for welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 186, 85-92.

The psychological and physiological effects of different genres of music are well documented in humans. These concepts have also been studied in kenneled dogs and some exotic animals, implying that animals may experience benefits similar...

Greenwell, P. J., Montrose, V. T. 2017. The gray matter: Prevention and reduction of abnormal behavior in companion gray parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Journal of Veterinary Behavior 20, 44-51.

Gray parrots (Psittacus erithacus) are popular companion birds, particularly noted for their ability to mimic human speech, their intelligence, and longevity. They are also prone to developing abnormal behaviors such as feather damaging behavior. This...

Sands, C., Evans, C., Buckmaster, C. A. 2017. The grooming sleeve: Encouraging conspecific-like behavior and strengthening the human-animal bond. Laboratory Animal Science Professional 5(2) (June), 52-53.

The act of grooming has been found to greatly decrease stress, heart rate, and cortisol levels in nonhuman primates; this decrease in stress and cortisol is seen in the animal being groomed, as well as...

Bliss-Moreau, E., Moadab, G. 2016. Variation in behavioral reactivity is associated with cooperative restraint training efficiency. JAALAS 55(1), 41–49.

Training techniques that prepare laboratory animals to participate in testing via cooperation are useful tools that have the potential to benefit animal wellbeing. Understanding how animals systematically vary in their cooperative training trajectories will help...

Prior, H., Bottomly, A., Champéroux, P. et al. 2016. Social housing of non-rodents during cardiovascular recordings in safety pharmacology and toxicology studies. Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods 81, 75-87.

Introduction: The Safety Pharmacology Society (SPS) and National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement & Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs) conducted a survey and workshop in 2015 to define current industry practices relating to housing...