Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Moreau, E. 2010. To squeeze or not to squeeze? A Discussion on LAREF, September, 2009. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(2), 3-4.

The discussion was started by the following questions: "Is the squeeze-back mechanism more or less stressful than the pole and collar system for removing a macaque from his cage for an IM (intramuscular) injection?" and...

McMillan, J. L., Galvan, A., Wichmann, T. et al. 2010. The use of positive reinforcement during pole and collar training of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 705-706 (Abstract #P78).

The pole and collar method enables safe transfer of a monkey from their home environment to a restraint chair without sedation. The ability to conduct procedures with a conscious and cooperative subject is cost effective...

Koban, T. L., Leto, S., Kusznir, T. et al. 2010. A European Union-compliant housing environment for nonhuman primates in a toxicology laboratory. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 718-719 (Abstract #P118).

As a global company, our institution made the decision to install European Union (EU) Appendix A-compliant nonhuman primate cages at one of its facilities. This investment represented a substantial evolution of standards commonly employed within...

Hopper, K., Morales, P. R., Wagner, J. L. 2010. Effects of caging on bone metabolism in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 735 (Abstract #P173).

Juvenile cynomolgus monkeys are frequently used in drug pharmacokinetic and toxicology testing where they are cage housed for extendeded periods of time. In this study measures of body mass, bone metabolism, and turn over were...

Egeler, J. L., Hoekwater, S., Hoffman, H. D. 2010. A novel approach for utilizing large group-housing style cages for nonhuman primates in toxicology studies. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 716 (Abstract #P110).

The ability to provide permanent group-housed caging for nonhuman primates involved in toxicology research is quickly becoming an important step in improving the overall quality of life for these animals. This type of caging offers...

Camacho, J. N., Britz, W., Perlman, J. E. et al. 2010. Interactive enrichment housing for nonhuman primates. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 666 (Abstract #PS46).

Environmental enrichment is commonly provided to diversify an animal’s surroundings while maintained in captivity. Traditional enrichment approaches may not provide sufficient environmental complexity and cognitive stimulation. Consequently, housing was designed for laboratory nonhuman primates to...

LAREF [Laboratory Animal Refinement and Enrichment Forum] 2007. Chapter 7.4. Pole-and-collar training of macaques. In: Making Lives Easier for Animals in Research Labs: Discussions by the Laboratory Animal Refinement & Enrichment Forum. Baumans, V., Coke, C., Green, J., Moreau, E., Morton, D., Patterson-Kane, E., Reinhardt, A., Reinhardt, V., Van Loo, P. (eds), 127-130. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

While strictly using positive reinforcement and applying patient gentle-firmness, most macaques can be trained to cooperate during the pole-attachment-chairing procedure. Some cannot be trained, because they have problems overcoming their often-legitimate mistrust of humans.

Reinhardt, V. 2003. Legal loophole for subminimal floor area for caged macaques. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6(1), 53-56.

The USDA regulations pertaining to the minimum space requirements of nonhuman primates and the fitting of elevated resting surfaces are contradictory. They implicitly condone the prevailing perch design that allows maximal usage of animal room...

Reinhardt, V. 2002. The myth of the aggressive monkey. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 5(4), 321-330.

Captive rhesus macaques are not intrinsically aggressive, but poor husbandry and handling practices can trigger their aggression towards conspecifics and towards the human handler. The statement 'rhesus macaques are so aggressive animals' is probably based...

Reinhardt, V. 2001. The impossible housing and handling conditions of monkeys in research laboratories. IPPL [International Protection League] News 28(2), 5-7.

The prevailing housing and handling conditions of monkeys in research institutions is described. The present situation in primate research laboratories strongly suggests that professional judgment is no guarantee that the inhumane housing and handling conditions...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. Blood collection procedure of laboratory primates: A neglected variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(4), 321-333.

A survey of 75 biomedical articles dealing with stress-dependent blood parameters in caged primates revealed that the conditions under which blood collection occurred were in most cases [72%] described either not at all or so...

Reinhardt, V., Reinhardt, A. 2000. The lower row monkey cage: An overlooked variable in biomedical research. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3(2), 141-149.

A survey of 96 primatological articles revealed that cage location of research monkeys is usually not mentioned (98%), in spite of the fact that the environment of upper- and lower-row housed animals markedly differs in...

Woolley, A. P. A. H. 1997. Requirements of biomedical research in terms of housing and husbandry for non-human primates: Pharmacology & Toxicology. Primate Report 49, 37-41.

The objective of toxicology and pharmacology studies is to detect change or variation from normal and to interpret the significance of such change, with the intention of assessing risk to man. With non-human primates (NHPs)...

Reinhardt, V. 1997. Species-adequate housing and handling conditions for Old World nonhuman primates kept in research institutions. In: Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, Eighth Edition. Reinhardt, V. (ed), 85-93. Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC.

Practical recommendations to address five basic characteristics of Old World primates in the laboratory setting: a) social disposition, b) semi-arboreal lifestyle, c) complex living environment, d) intelligence, e) sensitivity to distress.

Burge, T., Panoussis, B., Weber, H. 1997. Primate housing facilities for pharmaceutical research in Switzerland (an example). Primate Report 49, 19-22.

According to the Swiss Animal Welfare Legislation, the minimal enclosure area for macaques of the size of rhesus or cynomolgus monkeys for experimental purposes is 15 cubic meters. In such an enclosure up to 5...

Reinhardt, V., Liss, C., Stevens, C. 1996. Space requirement stipulations for caged non-human primates in the United States: A critical review. Animal Welfare 5(4), 361-372 .

Cage space requirements for non-human primates in the United States of America are less than those in European countries. Studies in support of the assumption that the US legal minimum cage size provides adequate space...

Capitanio, J. P., Mendoza, S. P., McChesney, M. 1996. Influences of blood sampling procedures on basal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal hormone levels and leukocyte values in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Medical Primatology 25(1), 26-33.

Differences in housing location and the amount of room disturbance associated with blood sampling have a significant impact on cell counts, but not on ACTH or cortisol levels. We believe that the critical factor that...

O'Neill-Wagner, P. L. 1994. When trying to get your monkeys to behave, try perches. In Touch 1(2), 6-8.

Higher perching elevations appear to be a very desirable feature in this environment for the expression of six of the twelve behaviors studied. Mid-level perches, on the other hand, were utilized more for only two...

Luttrell, L., Acker, L., Urben, M. et al. 1994. Training a large troop of rhesus macaques to co-operate during catching: Analysis of the time investment. Animal Welfare 3(2), 135-140.

This study demonstrates that only a minimal time investment was needed to train a large troop of laboratory non-human primates to co-operate in the catching procedure. A group of 45 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was...

Marriott, B. M., Marriott, R. W., Norris, J. et al. 1993. A semi-natural habitat for housing small, nonhuman primates. Journal of Medical Primatology 22, 348-354.

A semi-natural habitat that was designed to house a group of squirrel monkeys is described. Animals maintained in this environment were healthy, and none of the animals exhibited locomotor stereotypies. This facility was easier and...

Cowley, D., Vertein, R., Pape, H. et al. 1993. Improving the work environment for animal care personnel with laboratory macaques. Animal Technology 44, 129-135.

New techniques were developed to avoid the manual transfer - and the associated health hazard - of caged macaques during handling procedures.

Bercovitch, F., Kessler, M. J. 1993. Primate facilities and environmental enrichment: An ecological and evolutionary perspective. Humane Innovations and Alternatives in Animal Experimentation 7, 435-439.

The environmental enrichment program of the Caribbean Primate Research Center is guided by an evolutionary and ecological perspective. The evolutionary perspective suggests that primates should be housed in enclosures that provide a social and physical...

Reinhardt, V., Zweifel, D., Pape, D. 1992. Improving the microenvironment of caged laboratory macaques. Animal Technology 43, 179-183 .

Simple technical improvements of three common deficiencies of macaque cages are described: a) dark lower row cages, b) inaccessibility of vertical space, c) lack of privacy.

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Voluntary progression order in captive rhesus macaques. Zoo Biology 11,(1) 61-66.

The sequence in which 14 laboratory rhesus macaques left their home enclosure during a routine catching procedure was recorded on 30 occasions during 6 weeks. The animals were trained to voluntarily exit one by one...

Reinhardt, V. 1992. Transport-cage training of caged rhesus macaques. Animal Technology 43, 57-61.

A simple training protocol is described which ensures that [most] caged animals readily enter a transport cage.