Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Spoolder, H. A. M., Aarnink, A. A. J., Vermeer, H. M. 2012. Effect of increasing temperature on space requirements of group housed finishing pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 138(3-4), 229-239.

For groups of pigs to cope adequately with their housing conditions they need sufficient static space (occupied by the body of the pig), activity space (for movement between different functional areas and behaviours relating to...

DiVincenti, L., Rehrig, A., Wyatt, J. 2012. Interspecies pair housing of macaques in a research facility. Laboratory Animals 46(2), 1170-1172.

The eighth edition of The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals establishes social housing as the "default" for social species including non-human primates. The advantages of social housing for primates have been...

Whittaker, A. L., Howarth, G. S., Hickman, D. L. 2012. Effects of space allocation and housing density on measures of wellbeing in laboratory mice: A review. Laboratory Animals 46(1), 3-13.

In the majority of countries where there are legislative requirements pertaining to the use of animals in research, figures are quoted for minimum cage sizes or space allocation to be provided per animal. These figures...

Merriman, D. K., Lahvis, G., Jooss, M. et al. 2012. Current practices in a captive breeding colony of 13-lined ground squirrels (Ictidomys tridecemlineatus). Lab Animal 41(11), 315-325.

The authors provide an update to their 2006 report on the successful large-scale captive breeding of the 13-lined ground squirrel (TLGS; Ictidomys tridecemlineatus) in their colony, now a single-source supplier of purpose-bred TLGSs for several...

Weary, D. M. 2011. A good life for laboratory animals - How far must refinement go? Alternatives to Animal Experimentation [ALTEX] Proceedings of WC8, 11-13.

Refinement typically is viewed as a means of reducing harms to animals used in laboratory research. Examples of recent research on refinement include improved methods of handling and euthanasia. Focus in the animal welfare literature...

NC3Rs, University of Stirling. 2011. Common Marmoset Care [Online resource].

The three main divisions of 'marmosetcare.com' aim respectively to promote: an understanding of the range of behaviour in this species, placing this behaviour in the context of its natural habitat and promoting good welfare in...

Huber, H. F., Lewis, K. P. 2011. An assessment of gum-based environmental enrichment for captive gummivorous primates. Zoo Biology 30(1), 71-78.

In the wild, many primates consume gums exuded from trees, and many species are gum specialists. In spite of this, few data exist concerning gum feeding in captivity. Using a web-based survey of 46 zoos...

Honess, P., Fernadez, L. 2011. Environmental enrichment for captive and wild-born macaques. Enrichment Record 9, 16-18.

Although the use of wild-born primates in research is banned in some countries, in others it is commonplace. It has been demonstrated that not only do wild-born primates react more strongly to some stressors than...

Miller, S. 2011. Swine enrichment. Enrichment Record 6, 10-13.

In this review, swine behavior and various methods of enrichment are discussed. The review is based on both published journal articles and anecdotal successful enrichment methods that were shared recently on CompMed Listserve.

Gewin, V. 2011. Rats free each other from cages. Nature News.

Following a two-week introduction period, pairs of rats were put inside an arena. One was trapped inside a central restrainer, while the other roamed free in the larger space. By day six or seven, on...

Ekesbo, I. 2011. Sheep. In: Farm Animal Behavior: Characteristics for Assessment of Health and Welfare, 1st edition. Fraser, A. F. , Broom, D. M. (ed). CABI, Oxfordshire, UK. pp. 82-92.

Each chapter follows a consistent pattern describing the behavioral characteristics of the species featured. Reference is made to the natural state before domestication, leading us through the various changes to the present, demonstrating along the...

Beisner, B. A., Isbell, L. A. 2011. Factors affecting aggression among females in captive groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). American Journal of Primatology 73(11), 1152-1159.

Captive groups of primates often exhibit higher rates of aggression than wild, free-ranging groups. It is important to determine which factors influence aggression in captivity because aggression, particularly intense aggression, can be harmful to animal...

Špinka, M., Wemelsfelder, F. 2011. Environmental challenge and animal agency. Animal Welfare 27–43.

Challenges are there to be overcome – seen usually as problems to avoid rather than as opportunities to enjoy. However, for humans a life without challenge would be likely to be dull and boring, lacking...

Averós, X., Brossard, L., Dourmad, J. et al. 2010. A meta-analysis of the combined effect of housing and environmental enrichment characteristics on the behaviour and performance of pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 127(3-4), 73-85.

To quantify the combined effect of housing conditions and environmental enrichment on the behaviour and performance of pigs, a meta-analysis was performed using information from 45 experiments in 42 published manuscripts. Multiple regression models were...

Watson, L. M. 2010. Effectiveness of perforated plexiglass dividers as social grooming devices between neighboring, individually housed adult male Macaca fascicularis. Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(4), 1-4.

A clear, perforated, plexiglass divider was installed between neighboring cynos to test whether it altered their proximity to one another, or prompted any behavioral changes. ... Adult male cynomolgus monkeys tend not to spend a...

Leonardi, R., Buchanan-Smith, H. M., Dufour, V. et al. 2010. Living together: Behavior and welfare in single and mixed species groups of capuchin (Cebus apella) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). American Journal of Primatology 72(1), 33-47.

There are potential advantages of housing primates in mixed species exhibits for both the visiting public and the primates themselves. If the primates naturally associate in the wild, it may be more educational and enjoyable...

Williams-Fritze, M. J., Altieri, J. A., Clough, C. et al. 2010. Modification of a dog cage for use as an exercise unit for rabbits. American Association for Laboratory Animal Science [AALAS] Meeting Official Program, 703 (Abstract #P70).

The Guide for the Care and Use of Animals and the USDA Animal Welfare Regulations (AWR) outline minimum space requirements for laboratory animals, including rabbits. These documents encourage housing of animals in enclosures that allow...

Jensen, M. B., Studnitz, M., Pedersen, L. J. 2010. The effect of type of rooting material and space allowance on exploration and abnormal behaviour in growing pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 123(3-4), 87-92.

The experiment aimed to investigate the effect of type of rooting material and space allowance on explorative and abnormal behaviour in growing pigs. Thirty-six pens with partly slatted concrete floor were allocated to one of...

Ceja, C., White, J. 2010. Feeding behavior of Saguinus oedipus in relation to food hardness in a zoo setting: Possibilities for enrichment? Laboratory Primate Newsletter 49(3), 10-13.

We suggest that by providing animals with food in a more natural form (i.e., not cut to a standardized size), they would have an opportunity to process the food in a manner that best approaches...

Hohmann, G., Mundry, R., Deschner, T. 2009. The relationship between socio-sexual behavior and salivary cortisol in bonobos: tests of the tension regulation hypothesis. American Journal of Primatology 71(3), 223-232.

Bonobos are known for their pacifistic behavior and their large repertoire of behaviors that are thought to serve conflict resolution. One is an unusual form of ventro-ventral mounting that facilitates genital contacts (GC). Various hypotheses...

Carrasco, L., Colell, M., Calvo, M. et al. 2009. Benefits of training/playing therapy in a group of captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Animal Welfare 18(1), 9-19.

Adding a few minutes of positive human interaction per animal per week to the management of captive gorillas resulted in improved well-being in several areas: the drop in abnormal behaviours, behaviours directed at the public...

Hawkins, P., Hubrecht, R., Buckwell, A. et al. 2008. Refining Rabbit Care: A Resource for Those Working With Rabbits in Research. UFAW/RSPCA: Southwater, UK, 27 pp.

The report sets out how to provide: optimal enclosure characteristicsand size; social housing; solid flooring and substrate; raised areas; refuges; gnawing objects and dietary enrichment; positive interaction with humans; toys and objects to manipulate; for...

Gattermann, R., Johnston, J., Mcphee, M. E. et al. 2008. Golden hamsters are nocturnal in captivity but diurnal in nature. Biology Letters 4(3), 253-255.

Daily activity rhythms are nearly universal among animals and their specific pattern is an adaptation of each species to its ecological niche. Owing to the extremely consistent nocturnal patterns of activity shown by golden hamsters...

Dwyer, C. M. , Lawrence, A. B. 2008. Introduction to Animal Welfare and the Sheep. In: The Welfare of Sheep. Animal Welfare, volume 6. Dwyer, C. M. (Ed.). Springer: Dordrecht, 1-40.

Concerns for the lives of animals have been voiced for centuries, with concerns about the welfare of agricultural animals increasing since the 1960s. Animal welfare concerns arise for many reasons: care about the quality of...

Branson, E. J. (Ed.) 2008. Fish Welfare. Blackwell Publishing Ltd: Oxford, UK, 300 p.

Fish have the same stress response and powers of nociception as mammals. Their behavioural responses to a variety of situations suggest a considerable ability for higher level neural processing – a level of consciousness equivalent...