Refinement Database

Database on Refinement of Housing, Husbandry, Care, and Use of Animals in Research

This database, created in 2000, is updated every four months with newly published scientific articles, books, and other publications related to improving or safeguarding the welfare of animals used in research.

Tips for using the database:

  • This landing page displays all of the publications in the database.
  • Use the drop-down menus to filter these publications by Animal Type, Setting, and/or Topic.
  • Clicking on a parent category (e.g., Rodent) will include publications relating to all the items in that category (e.g., Chinchilla, Gerbil, Guinea Pig, etc.).
  • You may also add a keyword to further narrow your search.
  • Please note that at this time, only publications dated 2010 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Animal Type and Topic, and only publications dated 2020 or later (with some exceptions) can be filtered by Setting. Most publications older than 2010 can only be searched by keyword. 
Michael, R. P., Setchell, K. D. R., Plant, T. M. 1974. Diurnal changes in plasma testosterone and studies on plasma corticosteroids in non-anaesthetized male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Endocrinology 63, 325-335.

Authors evaluated plasma corticosteroid concentrations in male rhesus macaques who were trained to enter voluntarily a restraining apparatus and permitted venipuncture without showing signs of stress. Basal cortisol values were 30% lower than previously reported...

Maple, T. L., Erwin, J., Mitchell, G. 1974 . Sexually aroused self-aggression in a socialized, adult male monkey. Archives of Sexual Behavior 3, 471-475.

An abnormal but apparently successful sexual posture was observed in an adult male rhesus monkey in which the subject bit its hands and leg in the process of dismounting. This behavior followed each of several...

Malinow, M. R., Hill, J. D., Ochsner, A. J. 1974. Heart rate in caged rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Laboratory Animal Science 24, 537-540.

Heart rate of single-housed subjects increased coincident with human activity in the animal room, reaching peaks during feeding and cleaning.Heart beats/min measured via telemetry:Basal [before entering room] 138 +/- 25Person enters room: 150 +/- 25Person...

Gluck, J., Sackett, G. 1974. Frustration and self-aggression in social isolate rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 83, 331-334.

Self-aggression is often elicited by frustration.

Fittinghoff, N. A., Lindburg, D. G., Gomber, J. et al. 1974. Consistency and variability in the behavior of mature, isolation-reared, male rhesus macaques. Primates 15, 111-139.

Very useful photographic documentation of typical behavioral disorders shown by socially deprived rhesus macaques.

Epley, S. W. 1974. Reduction of the behavioral effects of aversive stimulation by the presence of companions. Psychological Bulletin 81, 271-283.

Results and studies to date suggest that the presence of companions can reduce both the magnitude and frequency of reaction to aversive or stressful stimuli .

Werner, C., Latane, B. 1974. Interaction motivates attraction: Rats are fond of fondling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29, 328-334.

In 3 separate experiments, 110 male albino Sprague-Dawley rats were given the opportunity to approach either a tethered stimulus rat or a responsive human hand. Ss were very attracted to the other rats but, when...

Wagner, J. L., Hackel, D. B., Samsell, A. G. 1974. Spontaneous death in rabbits resulting from gastric trichobezoars. Laboratory Animal Science 24, 826-830.

Hairball formation in humans occurs most frequently in emotionally disturbed females below the age of 30. It is possible that individual caging of rabbits over long periods of time could affect their psychological health and...

Pfaff, J. 1974. Noise as an environmental problem. Laboratory Animals 8, 347-354.

Audiogenic seizures, changes in parameters of the stress syndrome, and disturbance of acoustic communication in rodents are discussed as possible harmful effects of noise and evaluated in regard to standards published in Germany for man...

Mulder, J. B. 1974. Bedding preferences of mice over long-term confinement. Laboratory Animal Digest 9, 54-56.

Mice prefer aspen shaving bedding.

Mulder, J. B. 1974. Bedding selection by rats. Laboratory Animal Digest 9, 27-30.

Rats showed a preference for aspen shaving bedding

Lynch, J. J., Fregin, G. F., Mackie, J. B. et al. 1974. Heart rate changes in the horse to human contact. Psychophysiology 11(4), 472-478.

The effects of human social contact on the electrocardiogram (EKG) and general behavior of 2 horses were explored. Petting elicited a slowing of heart rate, while a person entering and exiting elicited transient, but often...

Krulich, L., Hefco, E., Illner, P. et al. 1974. The effects of acute stress on the secretion of LH, FSH, prolactin and growth hormone in the normal male rat, with comments on their statistical evaluation. Neuroendocrinology 16, 291-311.

Restraint stress is associated with a significant rise in plasma prolactin and LH levels.

Institute for Laboratory Animal Research 1974. Amphibians: Guidelines for the Breeding, Care, and Management of Laboratory Animals. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

The recommendations and guidelines suggested here should be considered as tentative. Specific procedures are subject to modification in accordance with individual situations, colony size, and personal preference.A serious handicap to the development of adequate care...

Holley, D. C., Evans, J. W. 1974. Effect of confinement on ovine glucose and immunoreactive insulin circadian rhythms. American Journal of Physiology 226, 1457-1461.

Cage restraint alters insulin and glucose levels of sheep.

Freidrich, H. 1974. A comparison of the behaviour of the Suidae. In: The Behaviour of Ungulates and Its Relation to Management, IUCN New Series, No. 24. Geist, V. , Walther, F. (eds), 133-143. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources [IUCN], Morges, Switzerland.

Detailed description of the species-typical behavior of pigs

Bernstein, I. S., Gordon, T. P., Rose, R. M. 1974. Factors influencing the expression of aggression during introductions to rhesus monkey groups. In: Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia. Holloway, R. L. (ed), 211-240. Academic Press, New York, NY.

What we have demonstrated is that the introduction of rhesus monkeys [both sexes, different ages, different rearing histories/personalities] to an established rhesus monkey social unit can be a potent stimulus for eliciting aggression. ... Rhesus...

Brown, G. M., Martin, J. B. 1974. Corticosterone, prolactin, and growth hormone responses to handling and new environment in the rat. Psychosomatic Medicine 36, 241-247.

The effects of handling and novel environment on cortisol, prolactin and growth hormone were assessed and different control mechanisms discussed. Handling and novelty of the environment are powerful stimuli to activate the pituitary-adrenal axis.

Augustine, J. 1974. The new hot lab for primate pathogens. Lab Animal 3(1), 40-43 & 49.

Photographic demonstration of inadequate lighting conditions in double-tier isolation cages.

Bach-Rita, G. 1974 . Habitual violence and self-mutilation: A profile of 62 men. American Journal of Psychiatry 131, 1018-1020.
Whitney, R. A., Johnson, D. J., Cole, W. C. 1973. Laboratory Primate Handbook. Academic Press, New York, NY.

Primates can injure personnel severely if adequate restraint is not used. The risk of herpesvirus B infection and other zoonoses transmitted by bite or scratch is minimized by appropriate restraint which may be physical or...

Vessey, S. H. 1973. Night observations of free-ranging rhesus monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 38, 613-620.

Rhesus macaques sleep in trees sitting on branches, mostly in clusters of 2-3 monkeys huddled together.

Redican, W. K., Mitchell, G. 1973. The social behaviour of adult male-infant pairs of rhesus macaques in a laboratory environment. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 38, 523-526.

He groomed the infant very carefully for a little over five minutes. The infant clung to Mellow's ventrum, climbed on his back, shoulders, and head, and leaned over backwards while holding onto his ears. Immediately...

Osborne, B. E. 1973. A restraining device for use when recording electrocardiograms in monkeys. Laboratory Animals 7, 289-292.

Forceful restraint method for electrocardiogram recording is described and demonstrated. Though ECGs have been recorded with minimal stress to the animals heart rate tended to rise because of the stress of the animal being removed...

Moriwaki, S. Y. 1973. Self-disclosure, significant others and psychological well-being in old age. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 14, 226-2232.