Reinhardt, C., Reinhardt, A., Reinhardt, V. 1986. Social behaviour and reproductive performance in semi-wild Scottish Highland cattle. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15, 125-136.

Social behaviour and reproductive performance in a herd of semi-wild Scottish Highland cattle were assessed over a period of 4 years. Dominance relationships were very firm. Being predictable to each other, the animals had little reason for overt aggressive conflicts and they settled the majority of disputes by agonistic activities that involved no physical contact between opponents (threatening and spontaneous withdrawing) and hence no risk of injury. Social standing depended on age and sex, with older animals generally being dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls overruled adult cows when they reached about 2 years of age. All four offspring of the top-ranking cow had outstandingly high rank positions despite the fact that their mother never intervened when they were involved in disputes. Dominance-associated aggressiveness (number of aggressive acts directed against individual subordinate partners) did not correlate with rank position, but was closely related to rank distance. Aggressiveness showed no sex difference. Mock fighting was a friendly contact behaviour shown by both sexes and all ageclasses. Participants did not try to defeat each other. The playful intention was underscored by the fact that invitations were made by the subordinate partner as often as by the dominant partner of a pair. Licking was a social service primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting was a playful behaviour shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls but not by cows. The activity was not used as a dominance demonstration, as has been reported in sheep, goats and muskox. Calves sometimes mounted their mothers to attract their attention. Heifers first gave birth at 2 or 3 years of age. Breeding was synchronized in May and June and calving coincided with the spring flush of grass, indicating a correlation between food quality and timing of pregnancy. The herd's average calving interval was 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of life was 5%. It was concluded that the low aggressive tension resulting from the firm hierachy may have been one reason why reproductive performance was so good, despite the fact that no veterinary care was provided.